History Facts and Trivia from the 20th Century

History Facts and Trivia from the 20th Century While texting is relatively new, some of the abbreviations we use for it are much older than we might think. For instance, the abbreviation OMG for Oh My God! dates back to as early as 1917. The earliest reference found is in a letter dated September 9, 1917, from Lord John Arbuthnot Fisher to Winston Churchill. In the last line of Lord Fishers short letter about newspaper headlines that were upsetting him, Lord Fisher wrote: I hear that a new order of Knighthood is on the tapis O.M.G. (Oh! My God!) Shower it on the Admiralty!! John Steinbeck and Pigasus Author John Steinbeck, best known for his epic novel The Grapes of Wrath, used to often add a symbol next to his name when signing things. This symbol was a pig with wings, whom Steinbeck called Pigasus. The flying pig was a reminder that although earthbound, it was good to aspire to something higher. Sometimes Steinbeck would add in Latin, Ad Astra Per Alia Porci (to the stars on the wings of a pig). Practice Suicide Runs On November 18, 1978, Jim Jones, leader of the Peoples Temple cult, ordered all his followers living in his Jonestown compound to drink poisoned grape-flavored punch in order to commit mass suicide. On that day, 912 people (including 276 children) died in what has become known as the Jonestown Massacre. How could one person convince over 900 others to commit suicide? Well, Jim Jones had been planning to carry out this revolutionary act of mass suicide for quite some time. To ensure full compliance, Jones had staged practice runs, called White Nights, in which he would order everyone to drink what he told them was poisoned punch. After everyone had stood around for about 45 minutes or so, he would then tell them that this had been a loyalty test. The Dots in Pac-Man When the Pac-Man video game was released in 1980, it quickly became an international sensation. As kids and adults alike moved the pie-shaped Pac-Man character around the screen, they tried to eat up lots of dots without themselves getting eaten by ghosts. But how many dots were they trying to eat? It turns out that each level of Pac-Man had the exact same number of dots 240. Lincoln Logs Created by Frank Lloyd Wrights Son Lincoln Logs is a classic childrens toy that has been played by millions of children for decades. The toy usually comes in a box or cylinder and includes both brown logs and green slats for roofs, which children use to build their own frontier house or fort. Despite playing with Lincoln Logs for hours and hours as a child, you might not know that they were created by John Lloyd Wright, the son of famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright, and were first sold by Red Square Toy Company in 1918. It would be easy to assume that Wright got the idea for Lincoln Logs by visiting an old log cabin, but that is not the case. Wright was in Japan helping his father build the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo when the idea for interlocking pieces struck him. It would also be easy to assume that the name Lincoln Logs refers to U.S. President Abraham Lincolns log cabin, but that too is not the case. The name Lincoln actually refers to the discarded original middle name of Johns father, Frank Lloyd Wright (he was born Frank Lincoln Wright). Lenin Was a Pseudonym Russian revolutionary Vladimir Ilich Lenin, also commonly called V.I. Lenin or just plain Lenin was actually not born with that name. Lenin was born as Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov and didnt begin using the pseudonym of Lenin until the age of 31. Up until that age, Lenin, still known as Ulyanov, had used his birth name for both his legal and illegal activities. However, having just returned from a three-year exile in Siberia, Ulyanov found it useful to begin writing under a different name in 1901 in order to continue his revolutionary work. Brad Pitt and the Iceman What do Brad Pitt and the Iceman have in common? Tattoos. Although the 5,300-year-old mummified remains of the Iceman, known as Otzi, was found with over 50 tattoos on his body, most of them were simple lines. Brad Pitt, on the other hand, had an outline of the Icemans body tattooed onto his left forearm in 2007. Juan Perons Hands While serving his third, non-consecutive term as President of Argentina, Juan Peron died on July 1, 1974, at age 78. His rule had been controversial, with many adoring him and others reviling him. After his death, his body was injected with formaldehyde and interred at La Chacarita Cemetery in Buenos Aires. In 1987, grave robbers opened up Perons coffin, cut off his hands and stole them, along with his sword and cap. The robbers then sent a ransom letter asking for $8 million to return the hands. Once the desecration was discovered, Perons body was sealed behind a bulletproof plate and 12 heavy-duty locks. On October 17, 2006, Perons body was moved to a mausoleum at Perons country home in San Vicente, just outside of Buenos Aires. The grave robbers have never been found. Catch-18 Joseph Hellers famous novel, Catch-22, was first published in 1961. Set in World War II, the book is a comic satirical novel about bureaucracy. The phrase Catch 22 in the novel is used to denote the vicious circle of military bureaucracy. The term Catch 22 has made it into mainstream usage to mean any two choices that are mutually dependent (for example, which came first: the chicken or the egg?). However, the term we now know as Catch 22 was almost Catch 18 for Heller had originally chosen Catch-18 as the title of the book. Unfortunately for Heller, Leon Uris published his Mila 18 novel just before Hellers book was to be published. Hellers publisher didnt think it would be good to have two books out at the same time with 18 in the title. Attempting to come up with another name, Heller and his publisher considered Catch-11, Catch-17, and Catch-14 before deciding on the title we all know, Catch-22. Insulin Discovered in 1922 Medical researcher Frederick Banting and research assistant Charles Best studied the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas of dogs at the University of Toronto. Banting believed that he could find a cure for the sugar disease (diabetes) in the pancreas. In 1921, they isolated insulin and successfully tested in on diabetic dogs, lowering the dogs blood sugar level. Researcher John Macleod and chemist James Collip then began to help prepare insulin for human use. On January 11, 1922, Leonard Thompson, a 14-year-old boy who was dying of diabetes, was given the first human experimental dose of insulin. The insulin saved his life. In 1923, Banting and Macleod were awarded the Nobel Prize for their work on discovering insulin. What was once a death sentence, people now diagnosed with diabetes can live long lives thanks to the work of these men. Why Is Roosevelt on the Dime? In 1921, when Franklin D. Roosevelt was stricken with a bout of polio that left him partially paralyzed, there were no organizations to lend support. Although Roosevelt had the money for the very best treatments for himself, he realized that there were thousands of others who did not. Also, at the time, there was no known cure for polio. In 1938, President Roosevelt helped establish the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (which later became known as the March of Dimes). This foundation was created to help care for polio patients and to help fund research to find a cure. Funding from the March of Dimes helped Jonas Salk discover a vaccine for polio. Soon after President Franklin D. Roosevelts death in 1945, the public started sending letters to the United States Treasury Department requesting that Roosevelts portrait be placed on a coin. The dime seemed the most appropriate coin because of Roosevelts ties to the March of Dimes. The new dime was released to the public on Roosevelts birthday, January 30, 1946. The Nickname Tin Lizzie Priced so that the average American could afford it, Henry Ford sold his Model T from 1908 until 1927. Many also may know the Model T by its nickname, the Tin Lizzie. But how did the Model T get its nickname? In the early 1900s, car dealers would try to create publicity for their new automobiles by hosting car races. In 1922, a championship race was held in Pikes Peak, Colorado. Entered as one of the contestants was Noel Bullock and his Model T, named Old Liz. Since Old Liz looked the worse for wear (it was unpainted and lacked a hood), many spectators compared Old Liz to a tin can. By the start of the race, the car had the new nickname of Tin Lizzie. To everyones surprise, Tin Lizzie won the race. Having beaten even the most expensive other cars available at the time, Tin Lizzie proved both the durability and speed of the Model T. The surprise win of Tin Lizzie was reported in newspapers across the country, leading to the use of the nickname Tin Lizzie for all Model T cars. Hoover Flags When the U.S. stock market crashed in 1929, President Herbert Hoover attempted to stop the U.S. economy from spiraling into what has become known as the Great Depression. Although President Hoover took action, most people agree that it just wasnt enough. Upset at Hoover, people began to give items that represented the economic crisis negative nicknames. For instance, shanty towns became known as Hoovervilles. Hoover blankets were newspapers that homeless people used to protect themselves from the cold. Hoover flags were pants pockets that had been turned inside out, symbolizing a lack of money. Hoover wagons were old cars pulled by horses since their owners could no longer pay for gas. The First Dot Com Surrounded by dot extensions, have you ever stopped to wonder what website was the very first to be a dot-com? That honor was claimed on March 15, 1985, when Symbolics.com registered their domain name. Tug-of-War Since tug-of-war has been a game played by adults for centuries, it became an official event at the second modern Olympic Games in 1900. However, its time as an official Olympic event was short-lived and it was last played at the Olympics at the 1920 Games. Tug-of-war was not the only event to be added and then later removed from the Olympic Games; golf, lacrosse, rugby, and polo also shared its fate. The First Star on the Walk of Fame On February 9, 1960, the very first star was awarded to actress Joanne Woodward. Within a year and half, over 1,500 of the stars were filled with names. Currently, over 2,300 of the stars have been awarded and two new stars are awarded each month. Barbies Full Name (co-founder of Mattel) after she realized that her daughter liked to play with paper dolls that resembled grown-ups. Handler suggested making a three-dimensional doll that looked like an adult rather than a child. The doll was named after Handlers daughter, Barbara, and is still produced by Mattel. The dolls full name is Barbara Millicent Roberts.

Creating a Quality Application Essay

Creating a Quality Application Essay There is no question that the application essay process can be a bit intimidating. As someone who has written several admissions essays, I know exactly how exasperating a process it can be! And that is why I have created this website. After years of school and dozens of compositions, I believe that I have come up with an effective formula for writing application essays from which anyone can benefit. If you wish to write a quality application essay, the first thing to which you must commit is the simple fact that it is going to take a while. So, do yourself a favor and get any ideas you might have of completing your admissions essay in a few hours out of your head. In fact, I would recommend that you give yourself at least a month to work on your admissions essay so that you dont feel rushed or anxious (as this could have a negative effect on your writing). The more time you allow for your work, the more fully you will be able to experience the creative process. This is why I believe that every student should start working on his or her application composition several weeks and/or months in advance. If you are planning to apply to college next year, I recommend that you get a calendar and map out a specific schedule for your work. Although this might seem unnecessary, I promise you that making this schedule will aid tremendously in the overall process. Designing a personalized schedule for your work is the first step toward an excellent application essay. Once you have created this schedule, feel free to read on to the next page. In the meanwhile, if you have any questions about admissions essays and/or graduate school essays, please dont hesitate to contact me.

Team Working and Effectiveness in Health and Social Care Research Proposal

Team Working and Effectiveness in Health and Social Care - Research Proposal Example The main objective of this project is to establish a practice development work thus enhancing and promoting good teamwork and effectiveness as an important aspect in improving health and social care outcomes. The desired outcome of the project is to identify the tools and ideas for attaining good teamwork and effectiveness in both social and health care facilities (Carnwell 2008, 76). The project proposal underlying assumption will be done on both the health and social care organizations settings. In preparation of this project, an inter professional survey team will carry out various in-depth interviews among several informants in the health and social care systems. Additionally, the group of surveyors will undertake a wide range review on grey literature on some of the teamwork components; teamwork effectiveness, intervention types, dynamics in both health care and social care, and finally, policies on teamwork in both social and healthcare systems in Britain. Teamwork generally en tails work performed by several allies with each of the associates playing an equal part in the task (Drinka 2000, 23). In health and social care facilities, the aspect of team working entails the dynamic process that involves more than one health or social care professional with corresponding skills and backgrounds, sharing a similar social or health goal. Additionally, it entails exercising concerted mental and physical effort in planning, assessing or patient care evaluation (Drinka 2000, 27). In social care, teamwork refers to the behaviors, which help in facilitating effective team member cooperation. Alternatively, team is defined as more than one individual who effectively perform related tasks or cooperate with other individuals dynamically. The group might be sharing a similar past or foreseeable-shared future. Fate can also help the aspect of team working in a social environ (Drinka 2000, 30).

The Cultural Competence Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Cultural Competence - Assignment Example A number of South Vietnamese were fleeing desperately in the jungle to small boats that were awaited to take us to the land of safety and freedom where we would eventually call home. During that period of darkness, I walked along a lonely road with limited family support as culturally mental health people like me were not recognized in the Vietnamese culture (Vaage et al., 2010). Problems are kept within the family rather than being shared with others and a facade often presented to the public to show a happy family life. When the social work profession does not solve the issue of understanding my culture, I would easily oppress the disadvantaged groups as a social worker, for example, those who try to share their problems. This is due to the misunderstanding of cultural differences. It is fair to say as a social worker, I must gain cultural competence to understand peoples cultural differences and the impact of social injustices on their wellbeing and to go beyond race and ethnicity (Healy, 2000). By implementing cultural care and as a social worker, I can more effectively address social injustice issues faced by vulnerable people in our community and tailor to the appropriate needs of clients empowering them to live life with dignity, respect, and values. Diversity refers to the characteristics that make people different from each other. Such differences set in as a result of diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Omoniyi & White, 2006). In Canberra, the diverse communities bring vibrancy, innovation, new ideas, economic development, resources, and sustainability. The Australian Census of Population and Housing is a source of data about Australians and their cultural diversity. Census carried out in 2011 indicated that approximately a quarter (26 percent) of Australia’s residents was born in other countries, and a further 20 percent had an average one overseas-born parent.  

Apoptosis - Short Essay Essay Example for Free

Apoptosis Short Essay Essay Kerr, Wyllie, and Currie first used the term apoptosis in a paper in 1972 to describe a morphologically distinct form of cell death, although certain components of the apoptosis concept had been described years previously. Our understanding of the mechanisms involved in the process of apoptosis in mammalian cells transpired from the investigation of programmed cell death that occurs during the development of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (Horvitz, 1999). In this organism 1090 somatic cells are generated in the formation of the adult worm, of which 131 of these cells undergo apoptosis or â€Å"programmed cell death. † These 131 cells die at particular points during the development process, which is invariant between worms, demonstrating the accuracy and control in this system. Apoptosis has been recognized and accepted as an important mode of â€Å"programmed† cell death, which involves the genetically determined elimination of cells. However, there is other forms of programmed cell death have been described and other forms of programmed cell death may yet be discovered Apoptosis occurs normally during development and aging and as a homeostatic mechanism to maintain cell populations in tissues. Apoptosis also occurs as a defense mechanism such as in immune reactions or when disease or noxious agents damage cells. Although there are a wide variety of stimuli and conditions, both physiological and pathological, that can trigger apoptosis, not all cells will necessarily die in response to the same stimulus. Irradiation or drugs used for cancer chemotherapy results in DNA damage in some cells, which can lead to apoptotic death through a p53-dependent pathway. Some hormones, may lead to apoptotic death in some cells although other cells are unaffected or even stimulated. Some cells express Fas or TNF receptors that can lead to apoptosis via ligand binding and protein cross-linking. Other cells have a default death pathway that must be blocked by a survival factor such as a hormone or growth factor. There is also the issue of distinguishing apoptosis from necrosis, two processes that can occur independently, sequentially, as well as simultaneously (Zeiss, 2003). In some cases it’s the type of stimuli and/or the degree of stimuli that determines if cells die by apoptosis or necrosis. At low doses, a variety of injurious stimuli such as heat, radiation,  hypoxia and cytotoxic anticancer drugs can induce apoptosis but these same stimuli can result in necrosis at higher doses. Finally, apoptosis is a coordinated and often energy-dependent process that involves the activation of a group of cysteine proteases called â€Å"caspases† and a complex cascade of events that link the initiating stimuli to the final demise of the cell Loss of contro l of apoptosis may result in disease. Excessive apoptosis is implicated in AIDS and Alzheimers disease and insufficient apoptosis may lead to cancer. Morphology of Apoptosis Light and electron microscopy have identified the various morphological changes that occur during apoptosis. During the early process of apoptosis, cell shrinkage and pyknosis are visible by light microscopy. With cell shrinkage, the cells are smaller in size, the cytoplasm is dense and the organelles are more tightly packed. Pyknosis is the result of chromatin condensation. On examination with hematoxylin and eosin stain, apoptosis involves single cells or small clusters of cells. The apoptotic cell appears as a round/oval mass. Plasma membrane blebbing occurs followed by karyorrhexis and separation of cell fragments into apoptotic bodies during a process called â€Å"budding.† Apoptotic bodies consist of cytoplasm with tightly packed organelles with or without a nuclear fragment. The organelle integrity is maintained and all of this is enclosed within an intact plasma membrane. These bodies are subsequently phagocytosed by macrophages, or neoplastic cells and degraded within phagolysosomes. Macrophages that engulf and digest apoptotic cells are called â€Å"tingible body macrophages† and are found within the germinal centers of lymphoid follicles or within the thymic cortex. There is no inflammatory reaction with the process of apoptosis nor with the removal of apoptotic cells because: (1) apoptotic cells do not release their cellular constituents into the surrounding interstitial tissue; (2) they are quickly phagocytosed by surrounding cells thus likely preventing secondary necrosis; and, (3) the engulfing cells do not produce anti-inflammatory cytokines. Distinguishing Apoptosis from Necrosis The alternative to apoptotic cell death is necrosis, which is considered to be a toxic process where the cell is a passive victim and follows an energy independent mode of death. Oncosis is used to describe a process that leads to necrosis with karyolysis and cell swelling whereas apoptosis leads to cell death with cell shrinkage, pyknosis, and karyorrhexis. Although the mechanisms and morphologies of apoptosis and necrosis differ, there is overlap between these two processes. Necrosis and apoptosis represent morphologic expressions of a shared biochemical network described as the â€Å"apoptosis-necrosis continuum† .For example, two factors that will convert an ongoing apoptotic process into a necrotic process include a decrease in the availability of caspases and intracellular ATP Whether a cell dies by necrosis or apoptosis depends in part on the nature of the cell death signal, the tissue type, the developmental stage of the tissue and the physiologic milieu (Zeiss, 2003). It is not always easy to distinguish apoptosis from necrosis, they can occur simultaneously depending on factors such as the intensity and duration of there stimulus, the extent of ATP depletion and the availability of caspases (Zeiss, 2003). Necrosis is an uncontrolled and passive process that usually affects large fields of cells whereas apoptosis is controlled and energy-dependent and can affect individual or clusters of cells. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, toxins, or trauma that result unregulated digestion of cell components Some of the major morphological changes that occur with necrosis include cell swelling; formation of cytoplasmic vacuoles; distended endoplasmic reticulum; formation of cytoplasmic blebs; condensed, swollen or ruptured mitochondria; disaggregation and detachment of ribosomes; disrupted organelle membranes; swollen and ruptured lysosomes; and eventually disruption of the cell membrane. This loss of cell membrane results in the release of the cytoplasmic contents into the surrounding tissue, sending chemotatic signals with eventual recruitment of inflammatory cells. Because apoptotic cells do not release their cellular constituents into the  surrounding tissue and are quickly phagocytosed by macrophages or normal cells, there is essentially no inflammatory reaction. It is also important to note that pyknosis and karyorrhexis are not exclusive to apoptosis (Kurosaka et al., 2003). Mechanisms of Apoptosis The mechanisms of apoptosis are highly complex involving an energy dependent cascade of molecular events. Research indicates that there are two main apoptotic pathways: the extrinsic or death receptor pathway and the intrinsic or mitochondrial pathway. However, there is now evidence that the two pathways are linked and that molecules in one pathway can influence the other. There is an additional pathway that involves T-cell mediated cytotoxicity and perforin-granzyme dependent killing of the cell. The perforin/granzyme pathway can induce apoptosis via either granzyme B or granzyme A. The extrinsic, intrinsic, and granzyme B pathways converge on the same execution pathway. This pathway is initiated by the cleavage of caspase-3 and results in DNA fragmentation, degradation of cytoskeletal and nuclear proteins, crosslinking of proteins, formation of apoptotic bodies, expression of ligands for phagocytic cell receptors and finally uptake by phagocytic cells. Caspases have proteolytic activity and are able to cleave proteins at aspartic acid residues, although different caspases have different specificities involving recognition of neighboring amino acids. Once caspases are initially activated, there seems to be an irreversible commitment towards cell death. To date, ten major caspases have been identified and broadly categorized into initiators (caspase-2,-8,-9,-10), effectors or executioners (caspase-3,-6,-7) and inflammatory caspases (caspase-1,-4,-5). Caspase-11, which is reported to regulate apoptosis and cytokine maturation during septic shock, caspase-14, which is highly expressed in embryonic tissues but not in adult tissues . Extensive protein cross-linking is another characteristic of apoptotic cells and is achieved through the expression and activation of tissue transglutaminase. Another feature is the expression of cell surface markers that result in the early phagocytic recognition of apoptotic cells by adjacent cells, permitting  quick phagocytosis with minimal compromise to the surrounding tissue. This is achieved by the movement of the normal inward-facing phosphatidylserine of the cell’s lipid bilayer to expression on the outer layers of the plasma membrane. Externalization of phosphatidylserine is a well-known recognition ligand for phagocytes on the surface of the apoptotic cell. PATHWAYS Extrinsic Pathway—The extrinsic signaling pathways that initiate apoptosis involve transmembrane receptor-mediated interactions. These involve death receptors that are members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor gene superfamily. Members of the TNF receptor family share similar cyteine-rich extracellular domains and have a cytoplasmic domain of about 80 amino acids called the â€Å"death domain†. This death domain plays a critical role in transmitting the death signal from the cell surface to the intracellular signaling pathways.The sequence of events that define the extrinsic phase of apoptosis are best characterized with the FasL/FasR and TNF-ÃŽ ±/TNFR1 models. In these models, there is clustering of receptors and binding with the homologous trimeric ligand. Upon ligand binding, cytoplasmic adapter proteins are recruited which exhibit corresponding death domains that bind with the receptors. The binding of Fas ligand to Fas receptor results in the binding of the adapter protein FADD and the binding of TNF ligand to TNF receptor results in the binding of the adapter protein TRADD with recruitment of FADD and RIP. FADD then associates with procaspase-8 via dimerization of the death effector domain. At this point, a death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) is formed, resulting in the auto-catalytic activation of procaspase-8 . Once caspase-8 is activated, the execution phase of apoptosis is triggered. Death receptor mediated apoptosis can be inhibited by a protein called c-FLIP which will bind to FADD and caspase-8, rendering them ineffective. Another point of potential apoptosis regulation involves a protein called Toso, which shows to block Fas-induced apoptosis in T cells via inhibition of caspase-8 processing . Intrinsic Pathway—The intrinsic signaling pathways that initiate apoptosis involve a diverse array of non-receptor-mediated stimuli that produce  intracellular signals that act directly on targets within the cell and are mitochondrial-initiated events. The stimuli that initiate the intrinsic pathway produce intracellular signals that may act in either a positive or negative fashion. Negative signals involve the absence of certain growth factors, hormones and cytokines that can lead to failure of suppression of death programs, thereby triggering apoptosis. In other words, there is the withdrawal of factors, loss of apoptotic suppression, and subsequent activation of apoptosis. Other stimuli that act in a positive fashion include, but are not limited to, radiation, toxins, hypoxia, hyperthermia, viral infections, and free radicals. All of these stimuli cause changes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that results in an opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, loss of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential and release of two main groups of normally sequestered pro-apoptotic proteins from the intermembrane space into the cytosol. The first group consists of cytochrome c, Smac/DIABLO, and the serine protease HtrA2/Omi. These proteins activate the caspase dependent mitochondrial pathway. Cytochrome c binds and activates Apaf-1 as well as procaspase-9, forming an â€Å"apoptosome† The clustering of procaspase-9 leads to caspase-9 activation. Smac/DIABLO and HtrA2/Omi are reported to promote apoptosis by inhibiting IAP activity. Additional mitochondrial proteins interact with and suppress the action of IAP The second group of pro-apoptotic proteins, AIF, endonuclease G and CAD, are released from the mitochondria during apoptosis, but this is a late event that occurs after the cell has committed to die. AIF translocate to the nucleus and causes DNA fragmentation and condensation of peripheral nuclear chromatin. This early form of nuclear condensation is referred to as â€Å"stage I† condensation. Endonuclease G also translocates to the nucleus where it cleaves nuclear chromatin to produce oligonucleosomal DNA fragments. AIF and endonuclease G both function in a caspase-independent manner. CAD is released from the mitochondria and translocates to the nucleus where, after cleavage by caspase-3, it leads to oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation and a more pronounced and advanced chromatin condensation. This later and more  pronounced chromatin condensation is referred to as â€Å"stage II†condensation The control and regulation of these apoptotic mitochondrial events occurs through members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins .The tumor suppressor protein p53 has a critical role in regulation of the Bcl-2 family of proteins.The Bcl-2 family of proteins governs mitochondrial membrane permeability and can be either pro-apoptotic or antiapoptotic. 25 genes have been identified in the Bcl-2 family. Some of the anti-apoptotic proteins include Bcl-2, Bcl-x, Bcl-XL, Bcl-XS and some of the pro-apoptotic proteins include Bcl-10, Bax, Bad, Bim, and Blk. These proteins can determine if the cell commits to apoptosis or aborts the process. It is thought that the main mechanism of action of the Bcl-2 family of proteins is the regulation of cytochrome c release from the mitochondria. Mitochondrial damage in the Fas pathway of apoptosis is mediated by the caspase-8 cleavage of Bid. This is one example of the â€Å"cross-talk† between the death-receptor (extrinsic) pathway and the mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway. Serine phosphorylation of Bad is associated with 14-3-3, a member of a family of multifunctional phosphoserine binding molecules. When Bad is phosphorylated, it is trapped by 14-3-3 and sequestered in the cytosol but once Bad is unphosphorylated, it will translocate to the mitochondria to release cytochrome C. Bad can also heterodimerize with Bcl-Xl or Bcl-2, neutralizing their protective effect and promoting cell death When not sequestered by Bad, both Bcl-2 and BclXl inhibit the release of cytochrome C from the mitochondria. Reports indicate that Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL inhibit apoptotic death primarily by controlling the activation of caspase proteases. An additional protein designated â€Å"Aven† appears to bind both Bcl-Xl and Apaf-1, thereby preventing activation of procaspase-9. Puma and Noxa are two members of the Bcl2 family that are also involved in pro-apoptosis. Puma plays an important role in p53-mediated apoptosis. It was shown that, in vitro, overexpression of Puma is accompanied by increased BAX expression, BAX conformational change, translocation to the  mitochondria, cytochrome c release and reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential. Noxa is also a mediator of p53-induced apoptosis. Studies show that this protein can localize to the mitochondria and interact with anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members, resulting in the activation of caspase-9. Caspase-3 is the most important of the executioner caspases and is activated by any of the initiator caspases (caspase-8, caspase-9, or caspase-10). Caspase-3 specifically activates the endonuclease CAD. In proliferating cells CAD is complexed with its inhibitor, ICAD. In apoptotic cells, activated caspase-3 cleaves ICAD to release CAD. CAD then degrades chromosomal DNA within the nuclei and causes chromatin condensation. Caspase-3 also induces cytoskeletal reorganization and disintegration of the cell into apoptotic bodies. Gelsolin, an actin binding protein, has been identified as one of the key substrates of activated caspase-3. Caspase-3 will cleave gelsolin and the cleaved fragments of gelsolin, in turn, cleave actin filaments in a calcium independent manner. This results in disruption of the cytoskeleton, intracellular transport, cell division, and signal transduction. Phagocytic uptake of apoptotic cells is the last component of apoptosis. Phospholipid asymmetry and externalization of phosphatidylserine on the surface of apoptotic cells and their fragments is the hallmark of this phase. The mechanism of phosphatidylserine translocation to the outer leaflet of the cell during apoptosis has been associated with loss of aminophospholipid translocase activity and nonspecific flip-flop of phospholipids of various classes. Research indicates that Fas, caspase-8, and caspase-3 are involved in the regulation of phosphatidylserine externalization on oxidatively stressed erythrocytes however caspase-independent phosphatidylserine exposure occurs during apoptosis of primary T lymphocytes. The appearance of phosphotidylserine on the outer leaflet of apoptotic cells then facilitates noninflammatory phagocytic recognition, allowing for their early uptake and disposal.This process of early and efficient uptake with no  release of cellular constituents, results in no inflammatory response. (Fadok et al., 2001). The process for apoptosis, is generally characterized by distinct morphological characteristics and energy-dependent biochemical mechanisms. Apoptosis is considered a vital component of various processes including normal cell turnover, proper development and functioning of the immune system, hormone-dependent atrophy, embryonic development and chemical-induced cell death. Inappropriate apoptosis (either too little or too much) is a factor in many human conditions including neurodegenerative diseases, ischemic damage, autoimmune disorders and many types of cancer. Excessive apoptosis results in diseases such as Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease. Cancer is an example where the normal mechanisms of cell cycle regulation are dysfunctional, with either an over proliferation of cells and/or decreased removal of cells. Tumor cells can acquire resistance to apoptosis by the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2 or by the down-regulation or mutation of pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bax. The expression of both Bcl-2 and Bax is regulated by the p53 tumor suppressor gene Alterations of various cell signaling pathways can result in dysregulation of apoptosis and lead to cancer. The p53 tumor suppressor gene is a transcription factor that regulates the cell cycle and is the most widely mutated gene in human tumorigenesis. The critical role of p53 is evident by the fact that it is mutated in over 50% of all human cancers. p53 can activate DNA repair proteins when DNA has sustained damage, can hold the cell cycle at the G1/S regulation point on DNA damage recognition, and can initiate apoptosis if the DNA damage proves to be irreparable. Tumorigenesis can occur if this system goes awry. If the p53 gene is damaged, then tumor suppression is severely reduced. The p53 gene can be damaged by radiation, various chemicals, and viruses.

Cuba Essay -- essays papers

Cuba Cuba has been under a dictator named Fidel Castro since 1959 when his army took over the communist party that was running the country. Cuba’s main source of economic growth comes from agriculture and exports to and from Europe. Since America has had an embargo on Cuba since 1962 neither countries trade with each other because of many disagreements about governing techniques and Fidel's unwillingness to comply with U.S. instructions. Cuba’s long history and culture has contributed to many economic and social growth through out the world, but Cuba is still struggling to try to stable their economy. Cuba is located by the Atlantic Ocean, and is directly located in the Carribean Sea. It is South of the tropic of Cancer and is on the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico. Jamaica and Florida are Cuba’s closest neighbors. Cuba is an island with irregular coastlines and many bays. Three quarters of the continent are flat plains, but there are rugged cliffs and coral reefs where many foreigners travel to see. Swamps and mangroves also are included in the plethora of Cuba’s surface features. The highest mountain in Cuba is in Guantanamo bay and it is called Sierra Maestra, there are three other large mountains, but the Sierra Maetra is the most significant of them all. Cuba’s capital is Havana and Cuba’s national language is Spanish. Cuba is made up of fourteen provinces. Each province pays taxes to Fidel Castro. The major cash crops are: sugarcane, tobacco, rice, co...

Crystal Pepsi: A Giant’s Failure Essay

Introduction We all have heard and seen it over and over again in commercials, movies, documentaries, stories, about Pepsi and its huge line of products. But very few of us (nationally and internationally) know about the company and its history. PepsiCo, Inc. was established through the merger of Pepsi-Cola and Frito-Lay. Pepsi-Cola was created in the late 1890s by Caleb Bradham while Frito-Lay Inc. was formed by the 1961 merger of the Frito Company, founded by Elmer Doolin in 1932. Throughout its history, PepsiCo has introduced number of products for its consumers from cola to water, to teas and dark chocolate mocha. It went through number of transformation and acquired several other companies along its way. Today, Pepsi is one of the largest food and beverage companies in the world operating nationally and internationally1. However, it has seen many failures on its way to success. One of its failures is Crystal Pepsi, introduced in April 1992 as a colorless drink with a market slogan â€Å"You ’ve never seen a taste like this†2. The main strategy was to introduce its colorless drink with fewer sweeteners to its health conscious consumers. The marketing began in 1990s and was tested in Denver, Sacramento, Dallas and Providence that resulted positive3. The paper discusses about its making, marketing mix, target market, competition and failure in detail. Product Every big business whether it is retail, manufacture or service depends on some kind of a product or product line it’s introduced. A proper strategy is required to sustain in market especially when competition is tough and rival is continuously coming up with some strategy to get the first movers advantage. Products that lack continuous innovation often suffers up to the extent that the internal or external forces ultimately drive them out of business. Crystal Pepsi is such product that gained the attention of consumers by its fancy name but lost the market in no time due to its lack of innovation. Although, PepsiCo tried hard to sustain its beloved product by introducing it in diet and different flavors but all strategies failed miserably.4 The making Crystal Pepsi by Pepsi was first introduced in 1992 and remained a mystery not only for its consumers but also to its manufacturers in terms of sales, strategy and market share. It was one of the most fascinated drinks when introduced as it was a colorless cola that provides relief from thirst and has health benefits simultaneously. The idea, however, was captured from the remake of Ivory Soap from its classic milky solution. There were two reasons behind the launch of Crystal Pepsi; Competition and a shift of consumer taste towards healthier beverages5. Crystal Pepsi targeted the market right but failed in both as the drink was nothing but a combination sugar and water with little flavor in it. Taste It was first marketed as the caffeine free, naturally flavored with preservatives drink that is different from other colas in many ways as it uses fewer sweeteners, equating as clearness with purity and health. The drink also claimed to be lighter than other drinks and Pepsi itself. Moreover, the drink was then introduced in lime flavor as well which was a part of limited edition and sales promotion. PepsiCo tried to save its product by adding citrus flavor to it. The company also shorten its name to Crystal and added â€Å"from the makers of Pepsi† on the packaging to give it a new brand image and changed formula but failed again. As the sales went down drastically all major projects related to Crystal Pepsi were put to halt that resulted in its disappearance from the shelves and discontinued supplies6. Packaging After receiving the positive response from its test market, PepsiCo decided to launch the product in United States and Canada to gain the maximum market share. A large campaign was launched and it was the first time in the company’s history a first photo-realistic, computer generated bus wrap was invented to advertise the product. The bottles were designed in the most sophisticated packing with a combination of blue, red, and silver prominent colors giving it a refreshing looks. It was also available in different sizes from 2 liters bottles to 250 ml cans7. Promotion The promotion strategy is one of the most significant parts of business. One  of the best quotes about the importance of advertising is by Stuart Henderson Britt and goes like this: â€Å"Doing business without advertising is like winking at a girl in the dark. You know what you are doing but nobody else does.† Obviously, like any other strategy promotion strategy consist of introduction, growth, maturity and decline but Crystal Pepsi is among those products that came in the market with a bang but suffered terribly since after. Advertising Crystal Pepsi started it full marketing campaign in 1992 nationally including media campaign featuring Van Halen’ music, â€Å"Right Now†. This gave boost to sales in the market for a short period of time but went down again due to its competition with its rival Coca Cola. The Advertisement also appeared in on network TV during Super Bowl XXVII on January 31st, 1993. PepsiCo has always been famous for its promotion and the time and money company spend on its every product line. PepsiCo was doing all it could to sustain the product in the market by using different electronic media resources available at that time. Promoting Crystal Pepsi through advertisements on buses and on merchandizes like pool float, glass and wall clock were few of its marketing strategies to improve the sales. Like many other companies, Pepsi also arranged promotions with major retailers like Walmart but it didn’t ended well. The other promoting methods that used were radio commercials and major newspapers including USA Today. The major factor that Pepsi was unable to recognize at the time of promotion was the differentiation. It stressed on the importance of product attributes like fewer sweeteners, less calories, flavored drink etc. when the time was to segregate itself from regular carbonate drink to more of an energy drink. Changing names, color of the packaging and commercial medium wasted time and money of the company that ultimately result in the failure of the product8. Price The pricing strategy is crucial in any decision making process. Often times products that are new in market are either priced too high or too low. For any company that has vast experience in customer relationship and dealing, pricing strategy is of greatest importance. The price of its product should reflect the quality of the product as well as the reaction of consumers. If  the price is set too low then the customers would reject the product and vice versa. In any case the strategy for Crystal Pepsi was the same; to penetrate. Pricing Strategy According to various sources, Crystal Pepsi was sold at regular cola prices which means no major efforts were put forth to enforce the selling of the product at higher prices. Crystal Pepsi at first gained a lot of attention from the other soda drinkers and they lined up to try this new refreshed cola that promotes healthy drink and fewer sweetener. The sales were skyrocketed and company made more than expected profits. However, the customers found no difference between sprite and 7up and eventually gave up on Crystal Pepsi. The price never went down but instead changes were made on its appearance to gain attention through attraction9. Consumer’s Reaction The pricing was not the issue in the case of the cola. Crystal Pepsi was selling good at the asking price varying from 89 cents to a dollar in 90s. When the cola was disappeared from the market it was due to its taste and by the end of its time period, the cola lost major part of its target market. Today, Crystal Pepsi is still available on websites such as eBay and Amazon where the ask prices vary from $50 to $10010. Lately, few videos were made by students at several universities on YouTube asking Pepsi to bring back Crystal Pepsi again. The future of Crystal Pepsi, however, is still unknown. Pepsi has tried many times to bring back Crystal Pepsi in National and International markets but was unable to fully penetrate because of severe competition posed by its either competitors or the companies that already have significant market share. Place The placing of the product plays a vital role in increasing sales revenue and gaining the maximum profit from the market. But like promotion, placing depending on emphasis. Crystal Pepsi has emphasized and stressed on promoting its formula and stretched to convince people that how different this cola is and what health benefits would they get after drinking it11. The mistake that was done by PepsiCo was in differentiation and positioning of its product. The product was different than regular Pepsi-Cola and Coca-Cola but had the same appearance and taste as of 7up and Sprite. That  is why it became hard for Crystal Pepsi to differentiate itself in the market and form a new image in its consumer’s minds. Distribution Crystal Pepsi was first taste tested by participants from different target markets and then was released to test market in April 1992. The launch was limited to test the reaction of its target consumers. The test markets were conducted in Denver, Dallas, and Providence, Rhode Island for nine months straight bringing all the possible changes to the formula according to the preferences of the consumers. It was then launched nationally during December 1992. Crystal Pepsi was among the favorite drinks of its consumers at that time and gained a good market share in matter of weeks. People tried it partially due to curiosity just to see what’s new in there12. It was available at all the major retailers like Walmart and did very well in sales. After its launch in the United States it was launched in Canada, Europe and Australia for limited time. The time span for Europe was the highest among all the markets but ultimately pulled off the shelves due to poor sales13. The Canadian and A ustralian Markets responded the same as United States but since Crystal Pepsi held different grounds in terms of taste and appearance, it lasted longer than United States. Pepsi later introduced Pepsi Max in Australia replacing Crystal Pepsi during the summer of 1993. Mexico A newer version of Crystal Pepsi under the name of Pepsi Clear was introduced in 2005 in Mexico. However, it was available for a limited time and in quantity in the market. It was another attempt to revive the product in an international market where diet colas are among the most favorite drinks. The product was not a failure but discontinued after the limited time14. Target Market One of the sensitive and time consuming decisions for any company to make is to get proper knowledge of its target market. Many companies have failed to properly evaluate the preference and taste of its target markets and vanished completely or at least their product lines were disappeared from the market. Crystal Pepsi focused on two types of consumers; 1. Health conscious individuals 2. People who prefer white soft drinks over colas Health Conscious Individuals The first target market was quite easy to capture because at the time of its launch people in most of the developed countries were getting health conscious. They made exercise their part of life. It was the start of an era where people begun to think of their fitness and gave workout and fitness priority15. PepsiCo targeted those individuals and presented them an innovative drink with fewer sweeteners and lower calories to help them in achieving their fitness goals. By removing the brown color from the regular cola, Crystal Pepsi easily made an impression of pure drink by presenting an image of â€Å"good health, purity and icy cold-water† to its drinkers. Soft-drinkers The other category was hard to tackle as many colorless soft-drinkers were already committed to their existed products and were brand loyal. However, the marketing strategy done by PepsiCo paid off during its launch and people tried the new product for the change. However, this market wasn’t captured at all and people went back to their original drinks completely ignoring Crystal Pepsi16. PepsiCo put all of their focus and attentions toward this group by changing formulas, packaging and differentiation, putting their health conscious group at stake. They lost both markets in matter of months17. Competitors PepsiCo has always been and still is in direct competition with Coca-Cola, another food and beverage giant. The competition is so severe that they spend millions of dollars to protect their secrets from one another just like many major companies in Silicon Valley. Although the rivalry between Pepsi and Coca-Cola is always severe, the other rivals were tough too. First Movers Advantage Crystal Pepsi was one of its kind products that was first introduced to a limited target market, made a huge impact in its test market, launched with a refined formula, failed and disappeared in 15 weeks. It is one of the most  anticipated products by PepsiCo still demanded by many consumers to date. Crystal Pepsi has enjoyed its top spot for few months and has gained the first mover advantage. They spell bound the market with its fewer sweeteners, low calories and new formula with amazing prices in the market. Consumers liked the taste initially as it was a 90s reason to drink cola without color, caffeine or preservatives1819. Competition Crystal Pepsi was introduced to directly compete with already existed products in the market such as Clearly Canadian. This and similar products were already held the major market share and stayed strong in its demand vs supply. They addressed the need and want of its consumers more strongly as compared to its competitors. Crystal Pepsi when came in targeted its competition in a unique way. Although the cola was colorless, it was a direct threat to Clearly Canadian and Quibell. Clearly Canadian and Quibell both offered non-carbonate drinks that were the market segment of soft-drinkers. Their products still exists in the market in many flavors. Coca-Cola, on the other hand, tried to come up with same product but with different strategy and named it as Tab Clear which also failed in market miserably. Although Coca-Cola also pushed its product like Pepsi, the results were the same for both the companies. Reason for failure As mentioned earlier in the discussion, the major contributor for failure of product was lack of differentiation. PepsiCo stressed over its new formula but failed to meet the expectation of consumers. It was hard for customers to tell the difference between Crystal Pepsi and 7up or Sprite. Crystal Pepsi failed to target its market accurately. The cola was launched for health conscious individual and soft-drinkers20 but lost its way to form a brand image in the minds of consumers. One other factor for failure was poor name execution. Crystal Pepsi was named crystal to give it an image of pure drink that was more attracted to older generation as compared to the younger ones. The younger generation was still drinking regular colas that had the same cost as of Crystal Pepsi. Evaluation/Critique The product was made with an intention to target the consumers that are health conscious and working their way out towards healthy lifestyle. The lack in differentiation and positioning of product made things worse for Crystal Pepsi that was in competition since its launch. Emphasizing on new formulas over and over again, cost the company enormous sum of money and time. Overall, the product was never seen as a failure, rather, an opportunity to study the market accurately for future products. References 1. Miller, Cyndee. (1993, February). Ebsco Host Database. Trendy marketers want consumers to see right through their products. http://gsuproxy.govst.edu:3963/ehost/detail?vid=3&sid=95159dfc-8f54-472c-98c0-0c533cb0e06b%40sessionmgr115&hid=117&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=17599561 2. Lavinsky, David. (1993, March). Ebsco Host Database. â€Å"When Novelty wears off, soft drinks clearly will fail†. http://gsuproxy.govst.edu:3963/ehost/detail?vid=10&sid=95159dfc-8f54-472c-98c0-0c533cb0e06b%40sessionmgr115&hid=117&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=17598728 3. Triplett Tim. (1994, May). Ebsco Host Database. â€Å"Consumers show little taste for clear beverages†. http://gsuproxy.govst.edu:3963/ehost/detail?vid=13&sid=95159dfc-8f54-472c-98c0-0c533cb0e06b%40sessionmgr115&hid=117&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=bsh&AN=9410311353 4. Laura Zinn. â€Å"Pepsi’s future becomes clearer†. Bloomberg Business week. January 31st, 1993 < http:// www.businessweek.com/stories/1993-01-31/pepsis-future-becomes-clearer 5. Eben Shapiro. â€Å"It’s a transparent attempt to revive Pepsi’s Cola sales†. The New York Times. April 13th, 1992. < http://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/13/business/it-s-a-transparent-attempt-to-revive-pepsi-s-cola-sales.html?action=click&module=Search ®ion=searchResults&mabReward=relbias%3Ar&url=http%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fsearch%2Fsitesearch%2F%3Faction%3Dclick%26region%3DMasthead%26pgtype%3DHomepage%26module%3DSearchSubmit%26contentCollection%3DHomepage%26t%3Dqry51%23%2Fcrystal%2Bpepsi%2F 6. Editorial review. â€Å"New Pepsi drinks offer clear choice†. Dayton Daily News. December 13th, 1992. < http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_action=doc&p_docid=0F5052CF4CD4FA55&p_docnum=7 7. Del Jones, USA Today. â€Å"Even good CEOs pick the wrong direction†. ABC News. November 7th, 2007. < http://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id=3830073 8. Jeff Hirsch and Tom

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Write a Critical Analysis of the Character of the Artful Dodger in Dickens’ Oliver Twist. Would You Describe the Dodger Only as a Victim of Circumstances? Jack Dawkins, also known as the Artful Dodger, is one of the most interesting and memorable characters in Dickens’ Oliver Twist. He is reckless and very good at pickpocketing. He is denied the opportunity of choosing his own way of life and is fated to become a criminal. Jack has been a victim of circumstances all his life. The first thing that strikes us when meeting the Dodger in Chapter 8 of Oliver Twist is the way he looks and acts. We see a boy, who appears and behaves like a full-grown man. The Dodger is a child, who wears a â€Å"man’s coat† and â€Å"corduroy trousers† and has a big hat on his head, as Dickens describes him. He is dressed like a young gentleman, looking rather funny with his â€Å"half-way turned sleeves†, but his manners is the thing that lures our attention even more. Not only is Jack Dawkins dressed like a man, but his attitude is like a full grown up as well. He walks and talks like a gentleman and we can distinguish him as a child only by his size. Apparently the way he has been treated by society or the way of life he had to lead influenced his manners. The Artful Dodger is a pickpocket, he is very good at it and he enjoys it. We see in the novel, after he takes Oliver to his home, that he has been trained by Fagin for a long time and lives with him and some other thieves. Read Also:  Critical Thinking Essay Examples Jack lives with some other kids, who are also thieves, and their leader Fagin. The place they live in is dark, old and filthy; â€Å"the walls and the ceiling were perfectly black with age and dirt†. It is not the kind of place children are suppose to grow up in, but the Dodger did live a great deal of his life there. He is the most skilled in the group of little thieves and is their leader and his attitude towards them and Fagin is respectful and friendly. Jack makes his living by stealing. He has been trained by Fagin from an early age and he is very good at it. Fagin had sheltered the Dodger when he was younger and vulnerable and trained him to be a thief, teaching him a bad way of living and so, depriving him the opportunity of his own choice of building a future. The circumstances of being an orphan led him to be apprenticed by the old thief, Fagin, thus becoming a thief himself and starting to enjoy it, which eventually leads to him get caught and put on trial. In the end of the novel the Artful Dodger gets caught by the authorities and is under trial for theft. He is caught trying to pick a pocket and they found a snuff-box in him, which is his and which he carries with all the time. Eventually he is send to court where he acts in a derisively and impertinently manner considering himself as a victim, shouting â€Å"I am an Englishman; where are my rights?† Apparently he must make fun of the jury, thus making a kind of â€Å"glorious reputation† among the thieves community. Eventually the judge grows eager and expels him from the court as soon as the sentence signed. Jack didn’t dodge this situation and gets send to penal colony in Australia. The Artful Dodger is treated as a criminal and a grown up all his life and he is very well adjusted to that. He is not the kid he is supposed to be and that makes him a victim of society – the victim of many circumstances that can fall on an orphan and deprive it of its childhood.

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